Stolen Childhoods: How Child Soldiers Become Victims of Human Trafficking.

By Abbey Webb

Imagine being twelve years old: you are spending the day at school with friends, and your only worry is your homework, and then you wake up the next morning to war that rips your family apart and forces you into a life of violence and uncertainty incomprehensible to a child. This was the reality for Ishmael Beah, who was recruited as a child soldier during Sierra Leone’s brutal war. In his memoir A Long Way Gone, Beah recalls how his childhood was stripped away and he, like many other children, were thrust into a world of trauma, exploitation, and coercion. [1]. His story illustrates what international law has long recognized: the recruitment of children as soldiers is a grave war crime and furthermore is a form of human trafficking that strips children of their childhoods and makes them weapons in war. [2].

OVERVIEW

Human trafficking involves the use of force, fraud, or coercion to obtain some type of labor or commercial sex act. [3]. Child soldiering has been found to be a type of human trafficking as it is those under the age of eighteen who are recruited through force, fraud, or coercion by armed forces or groups. [4]. Children can serve in multiple roles other than combatants such as scouts, cooks, guards, messengers, and more. [5] Girls, especially, are subjected to gender-based violence such as child marriage and rape. [6]. According to reports by the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF),between 2005 and 2022 over 105,000 children were verified as recruited and used in conflict. [7]. This recruitment is not voluntary but the results of threats, abduction, and psychological manipulation. [8]. These practices deprive children of their rights, violate international protections, and inflict long-term harm to their physical, emotional, and spiritual well-being. [9].

INTERNATIONAL LEGAL PROTECTIONS

International law recognizes the recruitment and use of child soldiers as a grave violation of children’s rights and humanitarian law. [10]. Under international law, children who are recruited are considered primarily victims regardless of whether their association was voluntary or forced. [11]. At the core of international protections is the principle that the “best interests of the child” must guide all decisions and actions concerning children in armed conflicts. [12].

The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court establishes that the conscription, enlistment, or use of children under the age of fifteen to participate actively in hostilities constitutes a war crime. [13]. This statute further criminalizes various forms of sexual violence, including but not limited to rape and sexual slavery, when committed against children in armed conflict situations. [14]. With these provisions not only are these crimes a clear violation of children’s rights but also a prosecutable offense under international criminal law.

The Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict (OPAC) expands protections internationally by prohibiting the compulsory recruitment of anyone under eighteen into state armed forces and banning the recruitment or use of children by non-state armed groups under any circumstances [15]. As is the case in some countries such as Sierra Leone, children were used by government forces and armed groups while not even fully understanding which side they were on, only that they must fight to survive. [16]. OPAC also obligates states to take all measures possible to ensure the demobilization, rehabilitation, and social reintegration of children who have been unlawfully recruited. [17].

The Paris Principles and Guidelines on Children Associated with Armed Forces or Armed Groups, adopted in 2007, reinforce the obligations under OPAC by providing a clear and detailed framework for prevention, release, and reintegration efforts. [18]. They highlight that no amnesty should be granted in any peace or cease-fire agreements from the grave crimes committed against any child. [19]. The principles go further by calling for alternatives to detention and prosecution for children formerly associated with armed guards, urging a focus on recovery and reintegration for those children instead. [20].

The importance of treating child soldiers as victims rather than criminals is powerfully illustrated in Ishmael Beah’s memoir, A Long Way Gone. Beah recalls that after his removal from armed conflict, the boys would run out of their beds screaming, cry to rocks believing they were their lost family, and sometimes ambush and tie up the staff, interrogating them as if they were prisoners of war. [21]. His account shows the psychological scars left on children and the challenges that those who work to rehabilitate them face. Under international law, such children are not viewed as perpetrators but rather as individuals in need of protection, healing, and reintegration. [22].

Together, these instruments create a robust international framework that frames child soldiering as both a war crime and a form of human trafficking, requiring states to pursue accountability for perpetrators while also prioritizing the protection and rehabilitation of children.

U.S. IMPLEMENTATION

The United States recognizes child soldiering as a form of human trafficking, linking the recruitment and exploitation of children in armed conflict to broader global trafficking networks. [23]. The U.S Department of Defense has acknowledged that the recruitment and use of children in conflicts fits within the definition of trafficking due to the use of force, fraud, and coercion. [24]. This recognition represents the growing awareness that child soldiering is not a collateral byproduct of war but a deliberate practice of exploitation that strips children of their rights, their childhood, and their individual autonomy.

The U.S. has incorporated this recognition into both domestic law and foreign policy. Under the Trafficking Victims Prevention Act (TVPA), the government identifies countries that recruit or use child soldiers and may impose restrictions on military assistance to those nations. [25]. These measures are aiming to hold governments and armed groups exploiting children accountable, while also reinforcing U.S. commitments under international law. [26].

The Department of Homeland Security further emphasizes that children involved in armed conflict meet the definition of human trafficking whether they appear to have joined voluntarily or not. [27]. This framework aligns with international standards by centering children as victims of exploitation and mandating recovery-oriented responses rather than punitive measures. [28].

While the U.S. has not eliminated child soldiering abroad, its acknowledgement of the practice as human trafficking strengthens international efforts that child soldiering is not isolated wartime abuse but rather an issue of organized exploitation. [29]. This perspective helps to shift policy toward prevention, protection, and long-term reintegration of affected children following both OPAC and Paris Principles. [30].

CONFLICT AS A BREEDING GROUND

Armed conflict creates the conditions in which child trafficking and soldiering thrive. Violence, instability, and the collapse of social structures leave children vulnerable. [31]. Children are left without protection, family support, education, or access to basic needs, making them the perfect target for armed groups. UNICEF reports that conflicts across Africa, the Middle East and Asia continue to fuel child recruitment, with both state and non-state actors exploiting children to fill their ranks. [32].

Ishmael Beah’s memoir provides a vivid account of how war transforms children into tools for war. He recalls, “My childhood had gone by without my knowing, and it seemed as if my heart had frozen.” [33]. This loss of innocence reflects the psychological trauma that conflict causes, leaving children more vulnerable to coercion and control. At another point in his memoir, Beah notes, “It was not easy being a soldier, but we just had to do it,” capturing the combination of necessity and compulsion that drives children to fight. [34].

Conflict blurs the line between survival and exploitation. Beah describes how, after months of fighting, it took several months before he could sleep through the night without medicine and not dream of the atrocities of war. [35]. His memories of this illustrate how deeply coercion and trauma take root, showing that violence not only has a physical effect on children but also a psychological effect.

The Dayton summary highlights that child soldiers are not simply passive victims but are often coerced into participating in acts of violence as a means of belonging when “all else has broken down.” [36]. Beah echoes this sentiment when he writes that recruitment stemmed from “starvation, the loss of our families, and the need to feel safe and be part of something.” [37]. This combination of fear, survival, and the search for community underscores why conflict zones are especially fertile ground for trafficking.

The war in Gaza offers a contemporary idea of this belief with infrastructure collapses and increasing displacement.  Both before and during the war there have been reports of Hamas and allied groups training and indoctrinating children to become involved in supporting terrorist acts. [38]. The risks children are facing in Gaza and elsewhere include factors that have been proven to heighten the risk of recruitment, exploitation, and trafficking. [39].

REINTEGRATION AND RE-RECRUITMENT

Even after escaping armed groups, former child soldiers face a precarious path to recovery. Physical, psychological, and social trauma from their experiences often persists long after the conflict ends, making reintegration into civilian life both complex and fragile. [40]. Children may struggle to resume education, rebuild family relationships, or gain acceptance from their communities, many of which may view them with suspicion or fear. [41].

Girls face additional risks tied to gender-based stigma. Many are subjected to sexual violence while associated with armed groups, and upon return, they may face rejection from their families or communities, especially if they are pregnant or have children born from abuse. [42]. These barriers impede participation in formal reintegration programs and heighten the risk of being drawn back into conflict or exploitative situations.

It has been shown that children who to return to environments still affected by the economic, social, and political drivers of conflict remain susceptible to trafficking and re-recruitment. [43]. Poverty, lack of education, social marginalization, and weak community structures all contribute to the likelihood that a child may be drawn back into armed groups or other hazardous labor. [44].

Re-recruitment is particularly dangerous because it perpetuates cycles of abuse and exploitation. Without sustained monitoring, follow-up support, and comprehensive reintegration programs, children are at high risk of returning to situations of violence and coercion. [45]. In some cases, children are actually wanting to go back into war, especially because some armed groups give drugs to children in efforts to keep them awake for days on end and numb to any feeling they may have. [46]. Beah in his memoir discusses how he himself expressed hope of going back to his commander not long after getting to a rehabilitation center. [47]. Addressing the risks faced by these children requires coordinated efforts on multiple levels, including state protection, psychosocial support, education access, and community-based reintegration initiatives. [48].

PREVENTION

Preventing recruitment and exploitation of children requires comprehensive, multi-layered strategies addressing both the demand for child soldiers and the vulnerabilities that lead to children joining armed groups. These efforts must include prevention both on a state level and community level.

A.   STATE LEVEL PREVENTION

At the national level, states play a critical role in implementing international standards to prevent child soldiering. Ratification and enforcement of treaties such as the OPAC is essential. [49]. Domestic laws should criminalize the recruitment and use of children in armed conflict, reflecting international human trafficking and war crime standards. [50].

Accurate age verification through universal birth registration is an important preventative tool, helping authorities distinguish between children and adults to enforce legal protections. [51]. Training security and military personnel on child protection policies, including prohibitions on recruitment and guidance on how to identify trafficking, further strengthens state capacity to prevent exploitation of children. [52].

B.    COMMUNITY LEVEL PREVENTION

Communities are often the first line of defense against recruitment. Families, community leaders, and local organizations can provide protective environments, monitor risks, and intervene when children are threatened with exploitation. [53]. Programs that enhance access to education, vocational training, and safe recreational spaces reduce the socioeconomic pressures that drive children toward armed groups. [54].

Public awareness campaigns targeting both children and adults can counter the glorification of armed conflict and the misleading narratives used by recruiters. [55]. These initiatives, combined with social support networks, can foster resilience and reduce the appeal of joining armed groups. [56]. The Dayton student summary highlights the importance of addressing root causes, such as poverty, displacement, and lack of education, to prevent initial recruitment and re-recruitment. [57]. Without comprehensive community-based prevention measures, children remain vulnerable to trafficking, and the cycle of violence continues through today’s children and future generations of children. [58].

CONCLUSION

The exploitation of children as soldiers represents one of the most egregious forms of human trafficking in the modern world. International law, supported by instruments such as the OPAC, Paris Principles, and Rome Statute recognizes the inherent criminality of recruiting children into armed conflict and emphasizes their protection, rehabilitation, and reintegration. U.S. efforts alongside global initiatives aim to end child soldiering and give children their childhoods back. After all children are the world’s peace and innocence and not weapons to be used to fight wars of men.

[1] Ishmael Beah, A Long Way Gone: Memoirs of a Boy Soldier (Sarah Crichton, 2007).

[2] Id.

[3] U.S. Dep’t of Homeland Sec., Blue Campaign: What is Human Trafficking?, (Sept. 24, 2025), https://www.dhs.gov/blue-campaign/what-human-trafficking.

[4] Alexander J. Ulintz & Tylar J. Eidson, Human Trafficking: Child Soldiers and the Dayton Accords, Univ. of Dayton, Stander Symposium Poster (2024), https://ecommons.udayton.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1174&context=stander_posters.

[5] U.N. Int’l Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF), Children recruited by armed forces or armed groups, UNICEF.org (Oct. 6, 2025), https://www.unicef.org/protection/children-recruited-by-armed-forces.

[6] U.S. Dep’t of War, U.S. Recognizes Child Soldiering as Human Trafficking, (Jan, 2, 2025), https://www.war.gov/News/News-Stories/Article/Article/4003191/us-recognizes-child-soldiering-as-human-trafficking/; UNICEF, supra note 5.

[7] UNICEF, supra note 5.

[8] UNICEF & Save the Children, Paris Principles Operational Handbook 43 (Paris Principles Steering Group 2022).

[9] UNICEF, The Paris Principles: Principles and Guidelines on Children Associated with Armed Forces or Armed Groups, ¶ 1.0 (Feb. 2007).

[10] UNICEF, supra note 5.

[11] Paris Principles Operational Handbook, at 17, 44 (UNICEF & Save the Children, 2022).

[12] Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict (OPAC), May 25, 2000, 2173 U.N.T.S. 222.

[13] Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court art. 8(2)(b)(xxvi), July 17, 1998, 2187 U.N.T.S. 90.

[14] Id. at art. 8(2)(b)(xxii).

[15] OPAC, supra note 12.

[16] Beah, supra note 1, at 134.

[17] OPAC, supra note 12, at art. 6.

[18] UNICEF, The Paris Principles: Principles and Guidelines on Children Associated with Armed Forces or Armed Groups, ¶ 6.6 (Feb. 2007)

[19] Id. at ¶ 3.5

[20] Id. at ¶¶ 3.6-3.8

[21] Beah, supra note 1, at 145.

[22] UNICEF, The Paris Principles: Principles and Guidelines on Children Associated with Armed Forces or Armed Groups, ¶ 3.11 (Feb. 2007).

[23] U.S. Dep’t of War, U.S. Recognizes Child Soldiering as Human Trafficking, (Jan. 2, 2025), https://www.war.gov/News/News-Stories/Article/Article/4003191/us-recognizes-child-soldiering-as-human-trafficking/.

[24] Id.

[25] Id.

[26] Id.

[27] U.S. Dep’t of Homeland Sec., Strategy to Combat Human Trafficking, The Importation of Goods Produced with Forced Labor, and Child Sexual Exploitation 48 (2025), https://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/publications/20_0115_plcy_human-trafficking-forced-labor-child-exploit-strategy.pdf.

[28] Id. at 15.

[29] Blue Campaign: What is Human Trafficking?, supra note 3.

[30] UNICEF, supra note 5.

[31] Beah, supra note 1, at 126.

[32] UNICEF, supra note 5.

[33] Beah, supra note 1, at 199.

[34] Id. at 149.

[35] Id. at 199.

[36] Paris Principles Operational Handbook, at 366 (UNICEF & Save the Children, 2022).

[37] Beah, supra note 1, at 199.

[38] Daniel Perez-Garcia, Child Soldiers in Palestinian groups: forced recruitment and use of minors as a violation of International Humanitarian Law, (Dec 5, 2022), https://rietjournal.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/EN_RIET_2022_N7_Child-soldiers-in-Palestinian-groups-forced-recruitment-and-use-of-minors-as-a-violation-of-International-Humanitarian-Law_daniel-perez-garcia_art2.pdf

[39] United Nations, Half Billion Children Trapped in Conflict Face Grave Rights Offenses, Third Committee Told, as Delegate Stresses Minors ‘Innocent on Both Sides’, (Oct. 4, 2024), https://press.un.org/en/2024/gashc4410.doc.htm.

[40] Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Children and Armed Conflict, Reintegration of former child soldiers, (last visited: Oct 6, 2025), https://childrenandarmedconflict.un.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Reintergration-brochure-layout.pdf.

[41] UNICEF, supra note 5.

[42] UNICEF, Girls Associated with Armed Forces and Armed Groups 46, (Dec. 3, 2020), https://alliancecpha.org/sites/default/files/technical/attachments/tn_gaafag_eng.pdf.

[43] Paris Principles Operational Handbook, supra note 36, at 183.

[44] Id.

[45] Id. at 157-158.

[46] Id. at 294.

[47] Beah, supra note 1, at 137.

[48] Id. at 107.

[49] Paris Principles Operational Handbook, supra note 36, at 6.

[50] Id. at 68.

[51] Id. at 165.

[52] Id. at 162-169.

[53] Id. at 153-154.

[54] Id. at 279.

[55] Id. at 177-179.

[56] Id. at 304.

[57] Alexander J. Ulintz & Tylar J. Eidson, Human Trafficking: Child Soldiers and the Dayton Accords, Univ. of Dayton, Stander Symposium Poster (2024), https://ecommons.udayton.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1174&context=stander_posters.

[58] Id. at 149.